Bacteriological quality assessment of drinking water from different sources within Khulna University

SK Nazmul Ulla; Shailee Ahmed Shuchi; Ayesha Ashraf; Shaila Siddiqua

doi:10.53808/KUS.2025.22.02.1327-ls

Authors

SK Nazmul Ulla Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh
Shailee Ahmed Shuchi Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh
Ayesha Ashraf Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh
Shaila Siddiqua Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.53808/KUS.2025.22.02.1327-ls

Keywords:

Drinking water, Total coliform count, Pathogenic bacteria, fecal coliform, Water quality, Filtration

Abstract

Water is a vital element for the survival of every being on earth including humans. However, many people fall into illness and even face death due to the unavailability of safe drinking water. Therefore, a cross-sectional study was carried out to isolate and detect the microbial contamination in drinking water from 10 different sources (including water from five residential halls, three academic buildings and two tea stalls behind the life science school) within Khulna University. Drinking water collected from Khan Jahan Ali Hall (KJH) showed the highest total coliform concentration (7.2×10³ CFU/100ml), whereas the lowest value (0.33 ×10³ CFU/100ml) was in water from Bongomata Begum Fazilatunnessa Muijb Hall (BFH), indicating the contamination of the water. Moreover, fecal coliform (Escherichia coli is 2 × 10³ CFU/100 ml) was also present in drinking water of BFH source. Conversely, water samples collected from three academic buildings showed no bacterial growth, likely due to the use of filtration systems. This absence of contamination may explain the greater preference for water from these sources, reflecting a higher level of trust in its quality. The microorganisms responsible for the observed microbial contamination were identified as Yersinia spp., Klebsiella spp., Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Shigella spp., and Vibrio spp. This study concludes the presence of gram-negative bacteria in several water sources within Khulna University necessitates water treatments to ensure safe drinking water.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biographies

Ayesha Ashraf, Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh

Professor, Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna
9208, Bangladesh

Shaila Siddiqua, Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh

Assistant Professor, Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna
9208, Bangladesh

References

Abdulbaqi, A. A., Alhejely, A., & Radwan, O. (2024). Microbiological analysis of household water tanks in Egypt. American Journal of Life Science and Innovation, 3(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajlsi.v3i2.3154 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54536/ajlsi.v3i2.3154

Ahmed, T., Rahman, M., & Islam, S. (2019). Microbial contamination of drinking water in university campuses: A case study. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 191(6), 370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7515-9

Albert, V., Ramamurthy, T., Das, S., Dolma, K. G., Majumdar, T., Baruah, P. J., Hazarika, S. C., Apum, B., & Das, M. (2024). Comprehending the risk of foodborne and waterborne disease outbreaks: Current situation and control measures with special reference to the Indian scenario. Heliyon, 10(16), e36344.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36344 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e36344

Ashbolt, N. J. (2004). Microbial contamination of drinking water and disease outcomes in developing regions. Toxicology, 198(1), 229–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2004.01.030 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2004.01.030

Ashbolt, N. J., Grabow, W. O., & Snozzi, M. (2001).Indicators of microbial water quality. In L. Fewtrell& J. Bartram (Eds.), Water quality: Guidelines, standards and health (pp. 289–316). WHO Press.manuscript

Aziz, S., Mazhar, A. R., Ubaid, A., Shah, S. M. H., Riaz, Y., Talha, T., & Jung, D.-W.(2024). A comprehensive review of membrane-based water filtration techniques. Applied Water Science, 14(8), 169.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-024-02226-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-024-02226-y

Bangladesh Standard (BDS) 1240:2001 – Drinking Water – Specification (1st Revision).BSTI, Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Bangladesh Standards and Testing Institution (BSTI). (2006). Retrived from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_Standards_and_Testing_Institution

Barnes, R., Curry, J. I., Elliott, L. M., Peter, C. R., Tamplin, B. R., & Wilcke, B. W. (1989). Evaluation of the 7-h membrane filter test for quantitation of fecal coliforms in water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 55(6), 1504–1506. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.55.6.1504-1506.1989 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.55.6.1504-1506.1989

Bartram, J., Cotruvo, J., Exner, M., Fricker, C., & Glasmacher, A. (2003). Water Safety Plan Manual: Step-by-step risk management for drinking-water suppliers. World Health Organization. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyg242 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyg242

Billah, S. M., Raihana, S., Ali, N. B., Iqbal, A., Rahman, M. M., Khan, A. N. S., Karim, F., Karim, M. A., Hassan, A., Jackson, B., Walker, N., Hossain, M. A., Sarker, S., Black, R. E., & El Arifeen, S. (n.d.). Bangladesh: A success case in combating childhood diarrhoea. Journal of Global Health, 9(2), 020803. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.09.020803 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.09.020803

Bottone, E. J. (1997). Yersinia enterocolitica: The charisma continues. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 10(2), 257–276. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.10.2.257 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.10.2.257

Cabral, J. P. S. (2010). Water microbiology: Bacterial pathogens and water. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 7(10), 3657–3703. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7103657 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7103657

Clark, J. A., Burger, C. A., & Sabatinos, L. E. (1982).Characterization of indicator bacteria in municipal raw water, drinking water, and new main water samples. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 28(9), 1002–1013. https://doi.org/10.1139/m82-150 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1139/m82-150

Claus, D. (1992). A standardized Gram staining procedure. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 8(4), 451–452. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01198764 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01198764

Colwell, R. R. (1996). Global climate and infectious disease: The cholera paradigm. Science, 274(5295), 2025–2031. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.274.5295.2025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.274.5295.2025

Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) & JICA (2009). National policy for safe water supply and sanitation 2009.Government of Bangladesh. Retrieved from https://wqtrms.dphe.gov.bd/

Dissasa, G., Lemma, B., & Mamo, H. (2022). Isolation and identification of major bacteria from three Ethiopian Rift Valley lakes live and processed fish, and water samples: Implications in sanitary system of fish products. BMC Veterinary Research, 18(1), 439.https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03508-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-022-03508-w

Esmaeelian, M., Jahani, M., Einafshar, S., & Feizy, J. (2020).Optimization of experimental parameters in subcritical water extraction of bioactive constituents from the saffron (Crocus sativus L.) corm based on response surface methodology. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization, 14(4), 1822–1832. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-020-00429-w DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11694-020-00429-w

Fahmida, K., Lemon, M. H. R., Islam, M. S., & Kader, M. A. (n.d.) (2013). Assessment of supplied water quality of Khulna WASA of Bangladesh. Department of Civil Engineering, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology.

Filipic, B., Kojic, M., Vasiljevic, Z., Sovtic, A., Dimkic, I., Wood, E., & Esposito, A. (2024). A longitudinal study of Escherichia coli clinical isolates from the tracheal aspirates of a paediatric patient—Strain type similar to pandemic ST131. Microorganisms, 12(10), 1990.https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12101990 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms12101990

Hasan, M. J., & Suman, M. (2021). Early hospitalization reduces the length of hospital stay and antibiotic use in children with moderate diarrhea: A study in Bangladesh. Journal of Pediatrics Review, 9(1), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.32598/jpr.9.1.916.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32598/jpr.9.1.916.1

Hasan, M. N. (2009). Bacteriological quality of drinking water supplies in Khulna city, Bangladesh. Journal of Data Science, 3(3), 31–34.

Hussain, T., Roohi, A., Munir, S., Ahmed, I., Khan, J., Edel-Hermann, V., Kim, K. Y., & Anees, M. (2013). Biochemical characterization and identification of bacterial strains isolated from drinking water sources of Kohat, Pakistan. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 7(16), 1579–1590. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR12.2204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR12.2204

Islam, M. A., Sakakibara, H., Karim, M. R., Sekine, M., & Mahmud, Z. H. (2011). Bacteriological assessment of drinking water supply options in coastal areas of Bangladesh. Journal of Water and Health, 9(2), 415–428. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.114

Islam, M. S., Chowdhury, M. R. K., Bornee, F. A., Chowdhury, H. A., Billah, B., Kader, M., & Rashid, M. (2023). Prevalence and Determinants of Diarrhea, Fever, and Coexistence of Diarrhea and Fever in Children Under-Five in Bangladesh. Children, 10(11), 1829. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10111829 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/children10111829

Islam, M. S., Rahman, M. A., & Kabir, M. H. (2021). Assessment of water quality and health risks in higher education institutions in Bangladesh. Journal of Water and Health, 19(2), 254–266. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2021.056

Jung, B., & Hoilat, G. J. (2025). MacConkey Medium. In StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557394/

Khan, A., et al. (2019). "Phenotypic and biochemical characterization of waterborne bacteria in rural areas." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(4), 589. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16040589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16040589

Khan, M. J., Ali, M. F., Hassan, M., & Ullah, A. (2017).Microbial evaluation of drinking water and frequency of bacterial isolates from Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Pathology, 28(1), Article 1.https://www.pakjpath.com/index.php/Pak-J-Pathol/article/view/389

Kotloff, K. L., Winickoff, J. P., Ivanoff, B., Clemens, J. D., Swerdlow, D. L., Sansonetti, P. J., Adak, G. K., & Levine, M. M. (1999). Global burden of Shigella infections: Implications for vaccine development and implementation of control strategies. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 77(8), 651–666.

Kristanti, R. A., Hadibarata, T., Syafrudin, M., Yılmaz, M., & Abdullah, S. (2022). Microbiological contaminants in drinking water: Current status and challenges. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 233(8), Article 299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05698-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-022-05698-3

Kumpel, E., & Nelson, K. L. (2013). Comparing microbial water quality in an intermittent and continuous piped water supply. Water Research, 47(14), 5176–5188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.058 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.058

Lanrewaju, A. A., Enitan-Folami, A. M., Sabiu, S., Edokpayi, J. N., & Swalaha, F. M. (2022). Global public health implications of human exposure to viral contaminated water. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, Article 981896. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.981896 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.981896

Levantesi, C., Bonadonna, L., Briancesco, R., Grohmann, E., Toze, S., & Tandoi, V. (2012).Salmonella in surface and drinking water: Occurrence and water-mediated transmission. Food Research International, 45(2), 587–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.06.037 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2011.06.037

Liu, Y., Zhang, X., Cai, L., & Zong, Z. (2020). Enhanced survival of ST-11 carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in the intensive care unit. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 41(6), 740-742. https://doi.org/10.1017/ice.2020.68 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/ice.2020.68

Loucif, K., Neffar, S., Menasria, T., Maazi, M. C., Houhamdi, M., & Chenchouni, H. (2020). Physico-chemical and bacteriological quality assessment of surface water at Lake Tonga in Algeria. Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring & Management, 13, 100284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2020.100284 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enmm.2020.100284

Manzanas, C., Morrison, E., Kim, Y. S., Alipanah, M., Adedokun, G., Jin, S., Osborne, T. Z., & Fan, Z. H. (2023). Molecular testing devices for on-site detection of E. coli in water samples. Scientific Reports, 13(1), Article 4245. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31208-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31208-4

McLellan, S. L., & Eren, A. M. (2014).Discovering new indicators of fecal pollution. Trends in Microbiology, 22(12), 697–706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2014.08.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2014.08.002

Mina, S. A., Marzan, L. W., Sultana, T., & Akter, Y. (2018).Quality assessment of commercially supplied drinking jar water in Chittagong City, Bangladesh. Applied Water Science, 8, Article 24.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0673-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0673-2

Molelekwa, G. F., Mukhola, M. S., Van der Bruggen, B., & Luis, P. (2014). Preliminary studies on membrane filtration for the production of potable water: A case of Tshaanda rural village in South Africa. PLOS ONE, 9(8), e105057. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105057 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0105057

Mou, S. I., Swarnokar, S. C., Ghosh, S., Ridwan, M. T., & Ishtiak, K. F. (2023). Assessment of drinking water quality served in different restaurants at Islam Nagor Road adjacent to Khulna University Campus, Bangladesh. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 11(9), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2023.119017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2023.119017

Mousumi, I. J., Sayed, A., Kayesh, M. E. H., & Rume, F. I. (2025). Bacteriological assessment of water quality in Barishal, Bangladesh: Potability testing and antibiogram profiling. Journal of Water and Health, 23(4), 450–460. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2025.258 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2025.258

Mustafa, B. M., & Hassan, N. E. (2024). Water contamination and its effects on human health: A review. Journal of Geography, Environment and Earth Science International, 28(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.9734/jgeesi/2024/v28i1743 DOI: https://doi.org/10.9734/jgeesi/2024/v28i1743

Nasrin, S., Saha, S. K., & Rahman, M. M. S. (2005). Assessment of supply water quality of Khulna City Corporation, Khulna, Bangladesh. Khulna University Studies, 6(1–2), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.53808/KUS.2005.6.1and2.0341-L DOI: https://doi.org/10.53808/KUS.2005.6.1and2.0341-L

O’Neill, A., Alesa, S. A., & Proano, L. (2024).Salmonella (salmonellosis and typhoid fever) attack. In G. Ciottone (Ed.), Ciottone’s disaster medicine (3rd ed., pp. 772–774). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-80932-0.00134-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-80932-0.00134-8

O’Toole, G. A. (2016). Classic Spotlight: Plate Counting You Can Count On. Journal of Bacteriology, 198(23), 3127. https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.00711-16 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.00711-16

Oyewale, A. T., Odetoyin, B. W., Oluduro, A. O., & Adeniyi, I. F. (2024).Occurrence of coliforms and biofilm-forming bacteria in raw, treated, and distributed water from two waterwork systems in Osun State, Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Water and Health, 22(4), 673–688. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.302 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2024.302

Paruch, A. M., & Mæhlum, T. (2012).Specific features of Escherichia coli that distinguish it from coliform and thermotolerant coliform bacteria and define it as the most accurate indicator of faecal contamination in the environment. Ecological Indicators, 23, 140–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.03.026 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.03.026

Payment, P., & Locas, A. (2011). Pathogens in water: Value and limits of correlation with microbial indicators. Ground Water, 49(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2010.00710.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.2010.00710.x

Perdikogianni, C., Galanakis, E., Michalakis, M., Giannoussi, E., Maraki, S., Tselentis, Y., & Charissis, G. (2006).Yersinia enterocolitica infection mimicking surgical conditions. Pediatric Surgery International, 22(7), 589–592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00383-006-1703-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00383-006-1703-y

Podschun, R., & Ullmann, U. (1998).Klebsiella spp. as nosocomial pathogens: Epidemiology, taxonomy, typing methods, and pathogenicity factors. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 11(4), 589–603. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.11.4.589 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.11.4.589

Rahman M. (2022). Assessment of Supply Water Quality of Khulna City Corporation, Khulna, Bangladesh, Khulna University studies, https://doi.org/10.53808/KUS.2005.6.1AND2.0341-Lc

Rygala, A., Berlowska, J., & Kregiel, D. (2020). Heterotrophic Plate Count for Bottled Water Safety Management. Processes, 8(6), Article 6. Https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8060739 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8060739

Saima, S., Ferdous, J., Sultana, R., Rashid, R. B., Almeida, S., Begum, A., & Jensen, P. K. M. (2023). Detecting Enteric Pathogens in Low-Risk Drinking Water in Dhaka, Bangladesh: An Assessment of the WHO Water Safety Categories. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 8(6), 321. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed8060321 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed8060321

Sanders, E. R. (2012). Aseptic Laboratory Techniques: Plating methods, 63, e3064. https://doi.org/10.3791/3064 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3791/3064-v

Sathyanarayana S. S., Pushpa B. V., & SDr. Hema Harsha. (2024). Selecting the Right Sample Size: Methods and Considerations for Social Science Researchers. International Journal of Business and Management Invention. Doi: 10.35629/8028-1307152167

Shooraj, M., Taheri, M., & Karimi-Yazdi, M. (2024). A Review on the Antibiotic Resistance of Shigella Strains in Iran. Infectious Disorders - Drug targets disorders), 24(1), 20–29. Https://doi.org/10.2174/1871526523666230811093114 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2174/1871526523666230811093114

Siddique, S., Shoumik, B. A. A., & Kibria, K. Q. (2022). Spatial distribution and the assessment of pond water suitability for aquaculture in the sonadanga and kotwali thanas of khulna city corporation. Khulna University Studies, 55–65. Https://doi.org/10.53808/KUS.2022.19.01.2205-ls DOI: https://doi.org/10.53808/KUS.2022.19.01.2205-ls

Uddin, M. N., Bahar, M. M., Islam, M. A., & Harun, A. Y. A. (2006). An evaluation of water supply scenario in khulna city corporation area. Khulna University Studies, 33–36. Https://doi.org/10.53808/KUS.2006.7.1.0522-L DOI: https://doi.org/10.53808/KUS.2006.7.1.0522-L

Wen, X., Chen, F., Lin, Y., Zhu, H., Yuan, F., Kuang, D., Jia, Z., & Yuan, Z. (2020). Microbial Indicators and Their Use for Monitoring Drinking Water Quality—A Review. Sustainability, 12(6), Article 6. Https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062249 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su12062249

WHO (2017), “Guidelines for drinking water quality”, World Health Organization, Geneva, Retrieved from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241549950

Wu, H., Li, D., Zhou, H., Sun, Y., Gou, Ling, & Shen, D. (2017). Bacteremia and other body site infection caused by hypervirulent and classic Klebsiella pneumoniae. Microbial Pathogenesis, 104, 254-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2017.01.049 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2017.01.049